| Abstract |
The Nepal Living Standards Survey IV (NLSS-IV) conducted in 2022/23 provides a detailed overview of household welfare in Nepal, reflecting significant socioeconomic changes since the country’s federalization. With data from 9,600 households, it assesses topics like consumption, health, education, labor, migration, income, and security.
Key findings include demographic shifts towards a younger working-age population, reduced household sizes, and an increase in female-headed households.Educational outcomes show a rise in literacy (from 35.6% in 1995/96 to 72.5% in 2022/23) and school attendance. However, health data reveals mixed trends, with increases in non-communicable and communicable diseases, despite improvements in sanitation and healthcare access.
Migration patterns indicate a growing share of female migrants, while reliance on remittances has increased significantly, with 76.8% of households receiving them. Agriculture’s share in household income has declined, reflecting a shift towards non-farm activities, although land ownership and crop diversity have decreased.
Labor market data shows an unemployment rate of 12.6% in 2022/23, particularly among youth, alongside a rise in non-agricultural wage employment. Income inequality persists, with the richest 20% consuming and earning disproportionately more than the poorest 20%.
While loans remain common, their purposes and sources have shifted towards personal needs and formal institutions. Security perceptions are largely positive, though women report slightly higher insecurity and violence. The survey highlights the need for targeted policies to address inequality, unemployment, and health challenges while building on improvements in living standards and access to facilities. |
| Table of contents |
Table of Content
Executive Summary 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 11
1.1 Introduction 11
1.2 Objective of the survey 11
1.3 Scope 11
1.4 Poverty estimation using NLSS-IV 12
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY 13
2.1 Statistical Unit 13
2.2. Coverage 13
2.3 Time reference 13
2.4 Survey methodology 13
2.5 Sampling design 13
2.6 Questionnaire Design 15
2.7 Field Work Organization 17
2.7.1 Field teams 17
2.7.2 Field staff recruitment and training 17
2.7.3 Data Collection and Supervision 17
2.7.4 Data Entry and Management 17
2.7.5 Organization of the report 18
CHAPTER 3: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS 19
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Distribution of population by age and sex 19
3.3. Dependency ratio 20
3.4 Household size and distribution by size 21
3.5 Sex and age of household head 21
CHAPTER 4 :HOUSING 37
4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 Occupancy status 37
4.3. Construction material of outer walls 38
4.4 Materials for roofing 38
4.5 Materials for foundation 38
4.6 Materials for floors 39
4.7 Number of rooms, area of dwelling and housing plot 39
4.8 Access to drinking water and various amenities 39
4.9 Main fuel used for cooking 40
4.10 Firewood collection and used 41
4.11 Places of firewood collection 41
4.12 Stove used for cooking 42
CHAPTER 5: ACCESS TO FACILITIES 61
5.1 Introduction 61
5.2 Education 61
5.3 Health 62
5.4 Road transport 62
5.5 Market Centre 63
5.6 Agricultural and animal service/vet centre 63
5.7 Cooperatives and bank 64
5.8 Source of drinking water, police station, ward office,
and community library 64
CHAPTER 6: LITERACY AND EDUCATION 93
6.1 Introduction 93
6.2 Literacy Rates 93
6.3 Educational Status 94
6.4 Net Enrollment Rate 94
6.5 Gross Enrollment Rate 95
6.6 Mean Years of Schooling 95
6.7 Type of School Attended 95
6.8 Reasons for Dropout 96
6.9 Educational Expenses 97
CHAPTER 7: HEALTH SERVICES 117
7.1 Introduction 117
7.2 Non Communicable Diseases 117
7.3 Communicable Diseases 117
7.4 Health consultations with medical practitioners 118
7.5 Health consultations by facility type (government and private) 118
7.6 Health expenditure and source of funds 119
7.7 Disability 119
CHAPTER 8: MIGRATION 137
8.1 Introduction 137
8.2 Status of migrants 137
8.3 Origin of migration: first out-migration from birthplace 138
8.4 Reason for migration: first out-migration from birthplace 138
8.5 Distribution of destination: from first out-migration from the birthplace 139
8.6 Ratio of in-migrant population to total population by sex 139
8.7 Origin of migration: last place before in-migration to current place 139
8.8 Age of in-migrants and duration of living among in-migrants 139
8.9 Reason for migration – in-migration to current place 140
CHAPTER 9: ABSENTEES 149
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Absentees as a proportion of the total population 149
9.3 Absentees by place of current residence 150
9.4 Absentees by reason 150
CHAPTER 10: AGRICULTURE 155
10.1 Introduction 155
10.2 Characteristics of Agriculture Household Head 156
10.3 Distribution of Agriculture Household (Holding) 156
10.4 Land Ownership 157
10.5 Land Fragmentation and Farm Size 157
10.6 Land Tenure 158
10.7 Major Crops 159
10.8 Improved Seeds 159
10.9 Use of Fertiliser 159
10.10 Livestock and Poultry 160
CHAPTER 11: CONSUMPTION 185
11.1 Introduction 185
11.2 Consumption aggregate 185
11.2.1 Food consumption expenditure 185
11.2.2 Non-food consumption expenditure 186
11.2.3 Non-food non-durable items 186
11.2.4 Durable items 186
11.2.5 Housing 187
11.3 Distribution of nominal per capita consumption 188
11.4 Distribution of nominal household consumption 189
CHAPTER 12: INCOME 197
12.1 Introduction 197
12.2 Construction of Income Aggregate 197
12.2.1 Farm Income 198
12.2.2 Wage Income 199
12.2.3 Non-farm Enterprises Income 200
12.2.4 Non-agricultural Rental Income 200
12.2.5 Transfer Income 200
12.2.6 Value of Owner-occupied Housing 200
12.2.7 Other Income 200
12.2.8 Total Income 201
12.2.9 Items Omitted from Income Aggregate 201
12.3 Levels, Sources and Distribution of Income 201
12.3.1 Levels of income 201
12.3.2 Income sources 202
12.3.3 Distribution of income 202
CHAPTER 13: LABOUR AND EMPLOYMENT 211
13.1 Introduction 211
13.2 Key labour market concepts 211
13.3 Labour market indicators by provinces and poverty status 213
13.4 Sex and labour market outcomes 213
13.5 Rural-urban differences in labour market outcomes 213
13.6 Labour market indicators by consumption quintiles 214
13.7 Age and labour market outcomes 214
13.8 Education and labour market outcomes 214
13.9 Sectors of employment 215
CHAPTER 14: WAGE EMPLOYMENT 251
14.1 Introduction 251
14.2 Number of days worked, remuneration, and basis of wage payment 251
14.3 Working patterns and earnings by occupation groups 252
14.4 Working patterns and earnings by rural-urban areas/analytical 253
domains 253
CHAPTER 15: NON-FARM ENTERPRISES 259
15.1 Introduction 259
15.2 Distribution of non-farmenterprise by industry 259
15.3 Ownership, registration, and hired labour 259
15.4 Size of hired workers 259
15.5 Financial Performance 260
15.6 Operational Tenure 260
CHAPTER 16: REMITTANCE AND TRANSFER INCOME 269
16.1 Introduction 269
16.2 Remittance received by households 269
16.3 Remittance source (in and outside the country) 270
16.4 Means of Transferring Remittance 270
16.5 Use of Remittance Received 270
CHAPTER 17: HOUSEHOLD LOANS 281
17.1 Introduction 281
17.2 Households with loans 281
17.3 Source of loan 281
17.4 Years of borrowing 282
17.5 Purpose of loan 282
17.6 Collateral for loan 282
17.7 Average amount of loan per household and outstanding loan 282
CHAPTER 18: ADEQUACY OF CONSUMPTION 291
18.1 Introduction 291
18.1 Adequacy of consumption 291
CHAPTER 19: GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE FACILITIES 297
19.1 Introduction 297
19.2 Government and Private facilities status 297
CHAPTER 20: SECURITY 319
20.1 Introduction 319
20.2 Security Situation 319
ANNEX 323
ANNEX I 323
NLSS-IV, STEERING COMMITTEE 323
ANNEX II 324
NLSS-IV, TECHNICAL COMMITTEE 324
ANNEX III 325
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NEPAL LIVING STANDARDS SURVEY IV 325
ANNEX IV 326
FIELD STAFF 326 |
